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.Chinese characters (:;:;:; literally: 'Han characters') are developed for the. They have been adapted to write a number of other Asian languages. They remain a key component of the where they are known as. Chinese characters constitute the oldest continuously used system of writing in the world.
By virtue of their widespread current use in East Asia, and historic use throughout the, Chinese characters are among the most widely adopted writing systems in the world by number of users. Chinese characters number in the tens of thousands, though most of them are minor graphic variants encountered only in historical texts. Unlike an alphabet, a character-based writing system associates each logogram with an entire sound and thus may be compared in some aspects to a syllabary.in requires a knowledge of between three and four thousand characters. In Japan, 2,136 are taught through secondary school (the ); hundreds more are in everyday use. Due to as well as, the Chinese characters used in Japan today are distinct from those used in China in several respects. There are various national standard lists of characters, forms, and pronunciations. Are used in mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia; the corresponding are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and to a limited extent in South Korea.
In Japan, common characters are written in, while uncommon characters are written in, which are virtually identical to Chinese traditional forms.In modern Chinese, the majority of Chinese words today consist of two or more characters. A character almost always corresponds to a single syllable that is also a.
However, there are a few exceptions to this general correspondence, including bisyllabic morphemes (written with two characters), bimorphemic syllables (written with two characters) and cases where a single character represents a polysyllabic word or phrase.Modern Chinese has many; thus the same spoken syllable may be represented by many characters, depending on meaning. A single character may also have a range of meanings, or sometimes quite distinct meanings; occasionally these correspond to different pronunciations. In the several are generally written with the same character.
In other languages, most significantly today in Japanese and sometimes in Korean, characters are used to represent Chinese loanwords, to represent native words independently of the Chinese pronunciation (e.g., in Japanese), and as purely phonetic elements based on their pronunciation in the historical variety of Chinese from which they were acquired. These foreign adaptations of Chinese pronunciation are known as and have been useful in the of. Main article:In recent decades, a series of inscribed graphs and pictures have been found at sites in China, including (c. 6500 BC), and from the 6th millennium BC, and (5th millennium BC). Often these finds are accompanied by media reports that push back the purported beginnings of Chinese writing by thousands of years.
However, because these marks occur singly, without any implied context, and are made crudely and simply, concluded that 'we do not have any basis for stating that these constituted writing nor is there reason to conclude that they were ancestral to Chinese characters.' They do however demonstrate a history of sign use in the valley during the Neolithic through to the Shang period. Oracle bone script. Ox scapula with oracle bone inscriptionThe earliest confirmed evidence of the Chinese script yet discovered is the body of inscriptions carved on bronze vessels and from the late (c.
The earliest of these is dated to around 1200 BC. In 1899, pieces of these bones were being sold as 'dragon bones' for medicinal purposes, when scholars identified the symbols on them as Chinese writing. By 1928, the source of the bones had been traced to a village near in, which was excavated by the between 1928 and 1937. Over 150,000 fragments have been found.Oracle bone inscriptions are records of divinations performed in communication with royal ancestral spirits. The shortest are only a few characters long, while the longest are thirty to forty characters in length.
The Shang king would communicate with his ancestors on topics relating to the royal family, military success, weather forecasting, ritual sacrifices, and related topics by means of, and the answers would be recorded on the divination material itself.The is a well-developed writing system, suggesting that the Chinese script's origins may lie earlier than the late second millennium BC. Although these divinatory inscriptions are the earliest surviving evidence of ancient Chinese writing, it is widely believed that writing was used for many other non-official purposes, but that the materials upon which non-divinatory writing was done – likely wood and bamboo – were less durable than bone and shell and have since decayed away.
Bronze Age: parallel script forms and gradual evolution. Main article:The traditional picture of an orderly series of scripts, each one invented suddenly and then completely displacing the previous one, has been conclusively demonstrated to be fiction by the archaeological finds and scholarly research of the later 20th and early 21st centuries. Gradual evolution and the coexistence of two or more scripts was more often the case. As early as the Shang dynasty, oracle-bone script coexisted as a simplified form alongside the normal script of books (preserved in typical ), as well as the extra-elaborate pictorial forms (often clan emblems) found on many bronzes.
See also:The Chinese script spread to together with from the 2nd century BC to 5th century AD. This was adopted for recording the Japanese language from the 5th century AD.Chinese characters were first used in Vietnam during the starting in 111 BC. They were used to write Classical Chinese and adapted around the 13th century to create the script to write Vietnamese.Currently, the only non-Chinese language outside of China that regularly uses the Chinese script is Japanese. Vietnam abandoned their use in the early 20th century in favour of a Latin-based script, and Korea in the late 20th century in favour of its homegrown script, although as Korea switched much more recently, many Koreans still learn them to read texts written before then, or in some cases to disambiguate homophones. Japanese. Main article:Chinese characters adapted to write words are known as. Chinese words borrowed into Japanese could be written with Chinese characters, while native Japanese words could also be written using the character(s) for a Chinese word of similar meaning.
Most kanji have both the native (and often multi-syllabic) Japanese pronunciation, or the kun'yomi, and the (mono-syllabic) Chinese-based pronunciation, or the on'yomi. For example, the native Japanese word katana is written as 刀 in kanji, which uses the native pronunciation since the word is native to Japanese, while the Chinese loanword nihontō (meaning 'Japanese sword') is written as 日本刀, which uses the Chinese-based pronunciation. While nowadays loanwords from non-Sinosphere languages are usually just written in, one of the two syllabary systems of Japanese, loanwords that were borrowed into Japanese before the Meiji Period were typically written with Chinese characters whose on'yomi had the same pronunciation as the loanword itself, words like Amerika (kanji: 亜米利加, katakana: アメリカ, meaning: America), karuta (kanji: 歌留多, 加留多, katakana: カルタ, meaning: card, letter), and tempura (kanji: 天婦羅, 天麩羅, katakana: テンプラ, meaning: tempura), although the meanings of the characters used often had no relation to the words themselves. Kanji that are used to only represent the sounds of a word are called. Main article:In times past, until the 15th century, in Korea, Literary Chinese was the dominant form of written communication prior to the creation of, the Korean alphabet.
Much of the vocabulary, especially in the realms of science and sociology, comes directly from Chinese, comparable to Latin or Greek root words in European languages. However, due to the lack of tones in Modern Standard Korean, as the words were imported from Chinese, many dissimilar characters and syllables took on identical pronunciations, and subsequently identical spelling in hangul. Chinese characters are sometimes used to this day for either clarification in a practical manner, or to give a distinguished appearance, as knowledge of Chinese characters is considered by many Koreans a high class attribute and an indispensable part of a classical education. It is also observed that the preference for Chinese characters is treated as being conservative and Confucian.In Korea, have become a politically contentious issue, with some Koreans urging a 'purification' of the national language and culture by totally abandoning their use. These individuals encourage the exclusive use of the native hangul alphabet throughout Korean society and the end to character education in public schools. Other Koreans support the revival of Hanja in everyday usage, like in the 1970s and 80s. In South Korea, educational policy on characters has swung back and forth, often swayed by education ministers' personal opinions.
At present, middle and high school students (grades 7 to 12) are taught 1,800 characters, albeit with the principal focus on recognition, with the aim of achieving newspaper literacy.There is a clear trend toward the exclusive use of hangul in day-to-day South Korean society. Hanja are still used to some extent, particularly in newspapers, weddings, place names and (although it is nowhere near the extent of kanji use in day-to-day Japanese society).
Hanja is also extensively used in situations where ambiguity must be avoidedsuch as academic papers, high-level corporate reports, government documents, and newspapers; this is due to the large number of that have resulted from of Chinese words.The issue of ambiguity is the main hurdle in any effort to 'cleanse' the Korean language of Chinese characters. Characters convey meaning visually, while alphabets convey guidance to pronunciation, which in turn hints at meaning.
As an example, in Korean dictionaries, the phonetic entry for 기사 gisa yields more than 30 different entries. In the past, this ambiguity had been efficiently resolved by parenthetically displaying the associated hanja. While hanja is sometimes used for Sino-Korean vocabulary, native Korean words are rarely, if ever, written in hanja.When learning how to write hanja, students are taught to memorize the native Korean pronunciation for the hanja's meaning and the Sino-Korean pronunciations (the pronunciation based on the Chinese pronunciation of the characters) for each hanja respectively so that students know what the syllable and meaning is for a particular hanja. For example, the name for the hanja 水 is 물 수 (mul-su) in which 물 (mul) is the native Korean pronunciation for 'water', while 수 (su) is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of the character.
The naming of hanja is similar to if 'water' were named 'water-aqua', 'horse-equus', or 'gold-aurum' based on a hybridization of both the English and the Latin names. Other examples include 사람 인 (saram-in) for 人 'person/people', 큰 대 (keun-dae) for 大 'big/large//great', 작을 소 (jakeul-so) for 小 'small/little', 아래 하 (arae-ha) for 下 'underneath/below/low', 아비 부 (abi-bu) for 父 'father', and 나라이름 한 (naraireum-han) for 韓 'Han/Korea'.In North Korea, the system was once completely banned since June 1949 due to fears of collapsed containment of the country; during the 1950s, had condemned all sorts of foreign languages (even the newly proposed ). The ban continued into the 21st century. However, a textbook for university history departments containing 3,323 distinct characters was published in 1971. In the 1990s, school children were still expected to learn 2,000 characters (more than in South Korea or Japan).After, the second ruler of North Korea, died in December 2011, stepped up and began mandating the use of Hanja as a source of definition for the Korean language.
Currently, it is said that North Korea teaches around 3,000 Hanja characters to North Korean students, and in some cases, the characters appear within advertisements and newspapers. However, it is also said that the authorities implore students not to use the characters in public. Due to North Korea's strict isolationism, accurate reports about hanja use in North Korea are hard to obtain.Okinawan. Main article:Chinese characters are thought to have been first introduced to the in 1265 by a Japanese Buddhist monk. After the Okinawan kingdoms became tributaries of, especially the, was used in court documents, but was mostly used for popular writing and poetry.
After Ryukyu became a vassal of Japan's, Chinese characters became more popular, as well as the use of. In modern Okinawan, which is labeled as a by the Japanese government, and hiragana are mostly used to write Okinawan, but Chinese characters are still used.Vietnamese. Main articles:, andIn the years after, the also instituted a series of orthographic reforms.
Some characters were given simplified forms called ( 新字体, lit. 'new character forms'); the older forms were then labelled the ( 旧字体, lit. 'old character forms'). The number of characters in common use was restricted, and formal lists of characters to be learned during each grade of school were established, first the 1850-character ( 当用漢字) list in 1945, the 1945-character ( 常用漢字) list in 1981, and a 2136-character reformed version of the jōyō kanji in 2010. Many variant forms of characters and obscure alternatives for common characters were officially discouraged.
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This was done with the goal of facilitating learning for children and simplifying kanji use in literature and periodicals. These are simply guidelines, hence many characters outside these standards are still widely known and commonly used, especially those used for personal and place names (for the latter, see )as well as for some common words such as 'dragon' ( 竜/龍, tatsu) in which both old and new forms of the character are both acceptable and widely known amongst native Japanese speakers.Southeast Asian Chinese communities. This section does not any. Unsourced material may be challenged and.Find sources: – ( August 2012) underwent three successive rounds of character simplification. These resulted in some simplifications that differed from those used in.
It ultimately adopted the reforms of the People's Republic of China in their entirety as official, and has implemented them in the. However, unlike in China, personal names may still be registered in traditional characters.started teaching a set of simplified characters at schools in 1981, which were also completely identical to the Mainland China simplifications.
Chinese newspapers in Malaysia are published in either set of characters, typically with the headlines in traditional Chinese while the body is in simplified Chinese.Although in both countries the use of simplified characters is universal among the younger Chinese generation, a large majority of the older Chinese literate generation still use the traditional characters. Chinese shop signs are also generally written in traditional characters.In the, most Chinese schools and businesses still use the traditional characters and, owing from influence from the Republic of China (Taiwan) due to the shared heritage. Recently, however, more Chinese schools now use both simplified characters. Since most readers of Chinese newspapers in the Philippines belong to the older generation, they are still published largely using traditional characters.North America Public and private Chinese signage in the United States and Canada most often use traditional characters.
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There is some effort to get municipal governments to implement more simplified character signage due to recent immigration from mainland China. Most community newspapers printed in North America are also printed in traditional characters.Comparisons of traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, and Japanese The following is a comparison of Chinese characters in the, a common standard used in Taiwan, the, the standard for Mainland Chinese (simplified), and the, the standard for Japanese.
Generally, the jōyō kanji are more similar to fantizi (traditional) than jiantizi are to fantizi. 'Simplified' refers to having significant differences from the Taiwan standard, not necessarily being a newly created character or a newly performed substitution. Chinese calligraphy of mixed styles written by (1051–1108 AD) poet.
For centuries, the Chinese literati were expected to master the art of calligraphy.The art of writing Chinese characters is called Chinese calligraphy. It is usually done with.
In ancient China, Chinese calligraphy is one of the. There is a minimalist set of rules of Chinese calligraphy. Every character from the Chinese scripts is built into a uniform shape by means of assigning it a geometric area in which the character must occur. Each character has a set number of brushstrokes; none must be added or taken away from the character to enhance it visually, lest the meaning be lost. Finally, strict regularity is not required, meaning the strokes may be accentuated for dramatic effect of individual style. Calligraphy was the means by which scholars could mark their thoughts and teachings for immortality, and as such, represent some of the most precious treasures that can be found from ancient China.Typography and design.